Syria

Risk Level: One - Do Not Fly

Syria is an active Conflict Zone. A civil war is ongoing since 2011. There is a high risk to civil aircraft. Syrian airspace (OSTT/Damascus FIR) should be avoided entirely. Airspace adjoining the Damascus FIR is also at risk: Cyprus, Turkey, Israel. Total flight ban for US, UK and German operators, and several other countries have issued warnings to avoid the airspace of Syria.

The primary risk is a misident by Syrian air defense systems. Civil aircraft may be targeted in error, or caught in crossfire during ongoing air attacks involving Israel, Russia, Iran. Missiles may erroneously lock on to civil aircraft. Israeli airstrikes on Syria are regular, and do not show any regard for civil traffic. There is a clear risk to civil aircraft operating on airways UL620, UW74, UR18, and UP62. In simple terms, if you find yourself planned overwater east of Cyprus, reconsider your route.

Major events:
June 2022: OSDI/Damascus airport closed for several days following Israeli airstrikes. Runways and terminal building both sustained damage.
Feb 2020: An A320 enroute OSDI/Damascus caught in crossfire during attack by 4 Israeli F-16’s, forced to divert to Russian controlled air base.
Sep 2018: Russian IL-20 shot down in error on FIR boundary with Cyprus (Nicosia FIR) - airline flights on UL620 within 50nm of this position.

Read: OpsGroup Note -Syria, Sep 2018 (PDF)

Current warnings list :

Source	Reference	Issued	Valid to
USA	FAA Information Note Syria/Israel	23 Apr 2021	Ongoing
USA	SFAR 114	27 Nov 2020	30 Dec 2023
France	AIC 24/22	09 Apr 2020	Ongoing
Canada	AIC 3/23	09 Feb 2020	Ongoing
UK	UK AIP ENR 1.1 (1.4.5)	22 Oct 2018	Ongoing
USA	Notam KICZ A0009/18	14 Apr 2018	Ongoing
Germany	AIC 20/22	15 Oct 2015	Ongoing
UK	UK AIP ENR 1.1 (1.4.5)	12 Jun 2015	Ongoing

Source: USA

Reference: FAA Information Note Syria/Israel

Issued: 23-Apr-21, valid until: Ongoing

Plain English: An errant surface-to-air missile fired by Syrian air defences missed its target and landed in Israel on 22 Apr 2021. Syria is actively using long range anti-aircraft weaponry which poses a risk to civil aircraft in the region. While US operators are banned from the OSTT/Damascus FIR, the FAA warns the threat is extended to adjacent FIRs in the Eastern Mediterranean region including the LLLL/Tel Aviv, OJAC/Amman, OLBB/Beirut and LCCC/Nicosia FIRs. Use caution if operating in the area.

Title: FAA Information Note - Syria/Israel - Errant surface to air missile impacts near Israeli critical infrastructure.

Click the link for full text.

Source: USA

Reference: SFAR 114

Issued: 27-Nov-20, valid until: 30 Dec 2023

Plain English: US operators are prohibited from entering the OSTT/Damascus FIR.

The situation in the Damascus FIR (OSTT) continues to present an unacceptable level of risk for U.S. civil aviation safety. The conflict in Syria between pro-Assad regime forces, third country military forces, as well as opposition groups, and extremist elements, is extremely complex.

The presence of third parties conducting independent military operations in Syria against pro-Assad regime forces, opposition groups, and extremist elements, exacerbates the situation. Third-party airstrikes in Syria often result in Syrian military air defense responses. Syrian authorities do not adequately de-conflict these air defense activities, which include indiscriminate surface-to-air missile (SAM) fire, with civil aviation operations in the Damascus FIR (OSTT), including, but not limited to, civil flight operations in close proximity to international airports in Syria. For example, in late February 2020, Syrian air defense activities forced a commercial Cham Wings Airbus 320 passenger flight on final approach to Damascus International Airport to divert to an alternate airfield in Syria.

The lack of de-confliction of Syrian air defense activity with civil air traffic is just one of the risks to U.S. civil aviation operations in the Damascus FIR (OSTT) emanating from third-party involvement in Syria. Russia, Iran, and the Lebanese terrorist organization, Hizballah, all of which are Syrian regime allies, continue to conduct military operations in Syria and have deployed significant air defense and electronic warfare capabilities, including Global Positioning System Start Printed Page 75842(GPS) jammers, which present a risk to U.S. civil aviation operations in the Damascus FIR (OSTT). In March 2020, Russian, Turkish and Syrian forces clashed in Idlib Province. During these clashes, fighter aircraft and possible SAMs shot down several manned and unmanned aircraft.

In addition to the hazards associated with third-party involvement in the Syrian conflict, extremist threats to civil aviation safety continue to exist in Syria. Terrorist groups, including the Islamic State of Iraq and ash-Sham (ISIS) and al Qaida-aligned entities possess, or have access to, a wide array of anti-aircraft weapons that pose a risk to civil aviation operations in the Damascus FIR (OSTT). Anti-regime forces, extremists, and militants have successfully shot down multiple military aircraft using man-portable air defense systems (MANPADS) during the Syrian conflict. Additionally, various elements have successfully targeted military aircraft using advanced anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs). ATGMs primarily pose a risk to civil aircraft operating near, or parked at, an airport. Finally, various groups employ unmanned aircraft systems to surveil and attack Syrian and Syrian-allied fielded forces and airfields.

As a result of the ongoing military activities by multiple actors and the lack of progress towards ending the conflict, the FAA expects significant hazards to the safety of U.S. civil aviation in the Damascus FIR (OSTT) will endure. Therefore, as a result of the significant, continuing risk to the safety of U.S. civil aviation in the Damascus FIR (OSTT), the FAA extends the expiration date of SFAR No. 114, § 91.1609, from December 30, 2020, to December 30, 2023.

Source: France

Reference: AIC 24/22

Issued: 09-Apr-20, valid until: Ongoing

Plain English: Operators should avoid Syrian airspace.

From 09/04/2020 and until further notice, pilots in command of aircraft performing air services mentioned in paragraph 1.1 are requested not to penetrate into the airspace of Syria (OSTT FIR (DAMASCUS)).

Source: Canada

Reference: AIC 3/23

Issued: 09-Feb-20, valid until: Ongoing

Plain English: Canadian operators should not enter the airspace of Syria, due to the potential risk from anti- aviation weaponry and military operations. There is a potential risk to aircraft within 200nm of the OSTT/Damascus FIR.

Level 2 (Recommendation)
SECURITY – HAZARDOUS SITUATION IN SYRIA. Canadian Air Operators and owners of aircraft registered in Canada are recommended not to enter FIR Damascus (OSTT), and to take all potential risk information into account in risk assessment and routing decisions when operating within 200 NM of FIR OSTT. Potential risk from anti- aviation weaponry and military operations.

Source: UK

Reference: UK AIP ENR 1.1 (1.4.5)

Issued: 22-Oct-18, valid until: Ongoing

Plain English: Potential risk to aircraft within 200nm of the Damascus FIR.

Hazardous Situation in the Vicinity of Damascus FIR

Potential risk to aviation operating up to 200 NM outside the Damascus FIR from anti-aircraft weaponry.

Operators are advised to exercise caution and conduct their own risk assessments.

Source: USA

Reference: Notam KICZ A0009/18

Issued: 14-Apr-18, valid until: Ongoing

Plain English: Exercise caution within 200nm of the Damascus FIR due to military activity. Possibility of GPS Interference, Communication jamming, and long-range surface to air missiles in the area.

KICZ A0009/18
SECURITY..UNITED STATES OF AMERICA ADVISORY FOR AIRSPACE IMMEDIATELY ADJACENT TO DAMASCUS FLIGHT INFORMATION REGION (OSTT FIR).

THOSE PERSONS DESCRIBED IN PARAGRAPH A BELOW ARE ADVISED TO EXERCISE CAUTION WHEN OPERATING IN THE AIRSPACE WITHIN 200 NAUTICAL MILES OFTHE DAMASCUS FLIGHT INFORMATION REGION (OSTT FIR) DUE TO HEIGHTENED MILITARY ACTIVITY IN OR AROUND SYRIA. THIS MILITARY ACTIVITY MIGHT INCLUDE GPS INTERFERENCE, COMMUNICATIONS JAMMING, AND POSSIBLE ERRANT LONG-RANGE SURFACE-TO-AIR MISSILES ORIGINATING FROM SYRIAN TERRITORY, WITHIN THE OSTT FIR, AND STRAYING INTO ADJACENT AIRSPACE,THAT COULD POSE AN INADVERTENT RISK TO U.S. CIVIL AVIATION OPERATING IN THIS REGION. TITLE 14, CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS, SECTION 91.1609, SPECIAL FEDERAL AVIATION REGULATION NO. 114 PROHIBITION AGAINST CERTAIN FLIGHTS IN THE DAMASCUS FIR REMAINS IN EFFECT.

A. APPLICABILITY. THIS NOTAM APPLIES TO: ALL U.S. AIR CARRIERS AND COMMERCIAL OPERATORS; ALL PERSONS EXERCISING THE PRIVILEGES OF AN AIRMAN CERTIFICATE ISSUED BY THE FAA, EXCEPT SUCH PERSONS OPERATING U.S.-REGISTERED AIRCRAFT FOR A FOREIGN AIR CARRIER; AND ALL OPERATORS OF AIRCRAFT REGISTERED IN THE UNITED STATES, EXCEPT WHERE THE OPERATOR OF SUCH AIRCRAFT IS A FOREIGN AIR CARRIER.

B. PLANNING. THOSE PERSONS DESCRIBED IN PARAGRAPH A PLANNING TO OPERATE WITHIN 200 NAUTICAL MILES OF THE OSTT FIR SHOULD EXERCISE CAUTION AND MUST REVIEW CURRENT SECURITY/THREAT INFORMATION AND NOTAMS AND COMPLY WITH ALL APPLICABLE FAA REGULATIONS, OPERATIONS SPECIFICATIONS, MANAGEMENT SPECIFICATIONS, AND LETTERS OF AUTHORIZATION, INCLUDING UPDATING B450.

C. OPERATIONS. EXERCISE CAUTION DURING FLIGHT OPERATIONS IN THE ABOVE NAMED AREA DUE TO HEIGHTENED MILITARY ACTIVITY IN OR AROUND SYRIA AND THE POTENTIAL RISK TO U.S. CIVIL AVIATION IN THE REGION.THOSE PERSONS DESCRIBED IN PARAGRAPH A MUST REPORT ANY SAFETY/SECURITY INCIDENTS TO THE FAA AT ASH-AXE-CITE-WATCH@FAA.GOVOR +1 202-267-3333 OR 1-844-412-1794.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION IS PROVIDED AT: https://www.faa.gov/AIR_TRAFFIC/PUBLICATIONS/US_RESTRICTIONS/

SFC - UNL, 14 APR 00:16 2018 UNTIL PERM.

Source: Germany

Reference: AIC 20/22

Issued: 15-Oct-15, valid until: Ongoing

Plain English: Do not enter Syrian airspace.

Level 3 (Highest Risk - Do Not Enter). Civil German air operators are prohibited to enter FIR DAMASCUS (OSTT). Potential risk from state of war.

Further information: Website of the Federal Ministry for Digital and Transport of Germany (www.BMVI.DE/KRISENMANAGEMENT).

Source: UK

Reference: UK AIP ENR 1.1 (1.4.5)

Issued: 12-Jun-15, valid until: Ongoing

Plain English: UK operators must avoid the airspace of Syria.

Hazardous Situation in Syria

Potential risk to aviation overflying from dedicated anti-aircraft weaponry.

In accordance with direction under the Aviation Security Act 1982, UK registered operators so served shall not enter the territory and airspace (including Damascus FIR) of the Syrian Arab Republic.

UK operators not currently subject to direction under the Aviation Security Act should contact UK Department for Transport before operating in this area.

Libya Level One - Do Not Fly

A civil war has been ongoing since 2014. Some progress made in Oct 2020 with the formation of a new government, but Libya remains an active conflict with armed clashes between various rival militia groups across the country. There is a high risk to civil aircraft. Libyan airspace (HLLL/Tripoli FIR) should be avoided entirely. Essentially a total flight ban for US and UK operators, and several other countries have warnings in place.

The primary risk is a misident by Libyan air defense systems, or by militia who have threatened to shoot down aircraft operating in western Libya, including HLLM/Tripoli Mitiga airport. Military activity reported over the high-seas which is either operating as OAT or not in control with ATC. Risk remains high across Libya at all flight levels, and avoidance of all airspace and airports is strongly recommended.

The secondary risk is that reliable ATC services cannot be guaranteed. The past few years have seen regular ATS and radar outages across the HLLL FIR airspace, and severe limitations in VHF capability, with operators having to communicate with Malta ATC for guidance.

Major events:
Aug 2022: Militia air defense forces claimed to have shot down a US MQ-9 UAS operating in the vicinity of Benghazi during a period of increased tensions and threats of renewed violence between competing militias vying for control of Tripoli.
June 2022: Failed attempt by militia to enter Tripoli to seize control of government offices, resulting in armed clashes and suspension of flights at HLLM/Mitiga airport.
Jan 2020: Multiple airstrikes targeting HLLM/Mitiga airport. Videos on social media showing planes landing at the airport as shells are falling in the background.
Nov 2019: Militia advancing on the capital, Tripoli, declared a no-fly-zone around the city, threatening to shoot-down civil aircraft attempting to fly to HLLM/Mitiga airport.
2014: HLLT/Tripoli airport closed after clashes between rival militias destroyed most of the airport's facilities. The airport remains closed to this day; most flights operate out of HLLM/Mitiga airport.

Read: Libya Airspace Update, Mar 2023 (OPSGROUP article)

Iran Level One - Do Not Fly

Following the shoot-down of Ukraine Int Airlines flight 752 over Tehran in Jan 2020, several countries issued airspace warnings for Iran, including: the UK, Canada, Germany, and France. The US has issued an outright flight ban, but all the others advise against landing or overflying the country at the lower flight levels. The airspace adjoining the Tehran FIR is also at risk: Iraq, Afghanistan and Pakistan.

The primary risk is a misident by Iranian air defense systems. Iran has shown willingness to use long-range, advanced anti-aircraft-capable weapons during heightened tensions and in close proximity to heavily flown international air routes. There is also a potential for Iranian surface-to-surface missile fire from western Iran, targeting terrorist positions in Iraq. The secondary risks come from ballistic missile test launches with no warning by Notam, and GPS jamming (including in overwater airspace over the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman).

Major events:
Jan 2023: Lufthansa temporarily suspended all flights to Iran as a precaution, after an Israeli drone attack on a munitions factory located near the central city of Isfahan.
Jan 2020: Iranian Armed Forces shot-down Ukraine Int Airlines flight 752 over Tehran, having mistaken the aircraft radar return for an inbound missile. Just hours prior to the shoot-down, the US FAA issued “Emergency Order” Notams banning all US operators from overflying the airspace of Iraq and Iran. This was in response to an Iranian missile strike on US military bases in Iraq, which had occurred earlier that night.
June 2019: Iran shot down a US military unmanned aircraft operating in airspace over the Gulf of Oman with a SAM system.
Since 2017: Iran has conducted multiple ballistic missile test launches without issuing any Notams to warn civil operators, the latest taking place in late December 2019.

Read: Iran Airspace Update, March 2020 (OPSGROUP article)

Yemen Level One - Do Not Fly

Improving airspace risk picture in Yemen since April 2022, when all parties in the conflict agreed a ceasefire - this resulted in notably reduced hostilities, limited resumption of commercial flights at OYSN/Sanaa Airport for the first in six years, and no reported drone strikes in Saudi Arabia. However, the ceasefire has not been extended as of Oct 2022 despite intervention from the UN, and there are concerns that the conflict may start up again soon.

Yemen remains an active conflict zone, and the vast majority of Yemeni airspace (OYSC/Sanaa FIR) should be avoided. The US, UK, France and Germany all prohibit aircraft from overflying any land portion of the FIR. US operators can still use UT702 and M999, while UK and German operators can use over water portions of N315, UL425 and R401 with limits as published by Notam (all well off the coast). Saudi Arabian airspace to the north and Somali airspace to the South also have risks.

The primary risk is intentional targeting by terrorist groups with access to sophisticated anti-aircraft weaponry. Civil aircraft may also be at danger from on-going high intensity military operations including the use of explosive drones and missiles. Saudi-led airstrikes can occur at any time with little regard to civil traffic, including in the capital Sana’a.

Major events:
Oct-Nov 2022: The UN is pushing for an extension of the ceasefire agreed in April. Houthi rebels have conducted several attacks in recent weeks targeting oil facilities in Yemen’s south.
Apr 2022: All parties in the Yemeni conflict agree a ceasefire.
2018-2022: Frequent Saudi airstrikes on Sanaa and other targets in Yemen in retaliation for Houthi drone attacks across the border.
2017: OYSN/Sanaa Airport badly damaged by coalition airstrikes.

Read: Saudi-Yemen Airspace Update, Oct 2020 (OPSGROUP article)

Iraq Level One - Do Not Fly

Iraq is an active conflict zone. Local and foreign military continue to fight against an armed insurgency that has existed since 2017. There is a high risk to civil aircraft. Iraqi airspace (ORBB/Baghdad FIR) should be avoided entirely.

Several countries have issued airspace warnings advising against operating in Iraqi airspace at the lower flight levels. The airspace adjoining the Baghdad FIR is also at risk: Iran, Turkey, Syria and Saudi Arabia.

The primary risk is intentional targeting by terrorist organisations who possess portable anti-aircraft weaponry. Civil aircraft may also be misidentified by the air defence systems of both local and foreign military who are active in the country. Airspace warnings issued by foreign aviation authorities allow for overflights at the higher flight levels (and eastern airways UM860 and UM688 are heavily flown international air routes), but there is a clear risk to civil aircraft operating throughout the FIR at all levels.

Major events:
Sep 2022: Iran closed a section of airspace in the north of the country along the border with Iraq, and is using the area to launch missile and drone attacks at targets near ORER/Erbil Airport. Iran are warning their own operators against flying in Iraqi airspace.
Oct 2021: US operators can now overfly the ORBB/Baghdad FIR above FL320. KICZ Notam A0036/20 which banned flights at all levels has been cancelled, and the SFAR now applies.
Jan 2020: Ukrainian Airlines 737 misidentified and shot down by Iranian armed forced in Tehran hours after retaliatory missile attacks against US bases in Iraq.
Jan 2020: US drone strike near ORBI/Baghdad killed a high ranking Iranian general. Considered a serious escalation. Anything that looks like a US asset or ally is now considered a target.
2020 onwards: Multiple rocket attacks on ORBI/Baghdad and the US embassy.

Read: Iraq Airspace Risk For Overflights, Sep 2022 (OPSGROUP article)

Syria Level One - Do Not Fly

Ukraine Level One - Do Not Fly

Ukraine closed its entire airspace to all civil traffic on Feb 24, 2022, due to a military invasion by Russia. There is an ongoing active conflict in Ukraine between Russian and Ukrainian forces. Russia, Belarus and Moldova have closed large sections of their own airspace near to their FIR boundaries with Ukraine.

All the major countries who regularly issue airspace warnings (the US, UK, Canada, France, Germany) have since issued total flight bans for Ukraine due to risk from military activity at all levels. (Several other countries have also issued flight bans for Ukraine but we have not listed them all here due to sheer volume).

The primary risk is an unintended targeting of civil aircraft by military, including misidentification (as with MAS17, UIA752), or confusion.

The secondary risk is potential lack of Ukrainian Air Traffic Control Service at short notice (Cyber Attack), and other unforeseeable non-normal operating environments for civil aircraft.

Read: OPSGROUP article: Ukraine and Russia Update March 2022

Prior to February 2022, there were two areas of concern in Ukraine - the conflict in the far east of the country (affecting UKDV/Dnipro FIR) and the double claim over ATC and airspace in Crimea (UKFV/URFV/Simferopol FIR).

Afghanistan Level One - Do Not Fly

US and allied forces have pulled out of Afghanistan, and the Taliban have taken control of the country. Afghanistan’s airspace is now effectively closed to overflights - the OAKX/Kabul FIR is uncontrolled, and overflying traffic should route around the country.

The FAA bans US operators from Afghanistan’s airspace, only permitting overflights on airways P500 and G500 in the far east of the OAKX/Kabul FIR. EASA, along with authorities in several western countries, have issued similar warnings.

The primary risks are direct and indirect fire targeting airports and from surface-to-air fire targeting aircraft operating at low altitudes. Additionally, the conflict has resulted in limited ATC control across the airspace and an extreme threat to aircraft and crew safety and security on the ground.

Major events:
Aug 2021: US and allied military evacuations have finished at OAKB/Kabul airport. It is now under Taliban control. The FAA advises that there are no longer any ATC services available here, along with the entire OAKX/Kabul FIR.
Nov 2020: Major rocket attack in Kabul. Nearly two dozen rockets were fired from vehicles in several neighborhoods around the city causing multiple casualties. The road between OAKB/Kabul Airport and the Intercontinental Hotel was also targeted with an explosive device.

Read: OpsGroup Note - Afghanistan Ops Update & Situation Overview 13SEP2021

North Korea Level Two - Danger exists

The primary risk is from debris from missile re-entries striking aircraft overflying the oceanic part of the ZKKP/Pyongyang FIR over the Sea of Japan. North Korea regularly conducts unannounced missile tests in this area. Consider rerouting to remain over the Japanese landmass or east of it.

The US prohibits flights across all North Korean airspace, including the oceanic part of the ZKKP/Pyongyang FIR over the Sea of Japan. Several other countries have airspace warnings in place which advise caution due to the risk posed by unannounced rocket launches.

Major events:
Feb 2023: Ballistic missile fired over the UHHH/Khabarovsk FIR and then landed inside the RJJJ/Fukuoka FIR near several international airways.
Oct 2022: Ballistic missile fired directly over Japan - the first to incur on Japanese airspace since 2017.
2017: North Korea launched two intercontinental ballistic missiles. Both of these landed in the Sea of Japan, well inside the Fukuoka Flight Information Region (Japanese airspace), and significantly, at least one did not re-enter the atmosphere intact – meaning that a debris field of missile fragments passed through the airspace, not just one complete missile.
2015: North Korea gradually stopped notifying ICAO of missile launches, so that aircraft could avoid the launch and splashdown areas.

Read: North Korea Missile Threat, Oct 2022 (OPSGROUP article)

Mali Level Two - Danger exists

The northern Mali War has been ongoing since 2012, and there have been no improvements in stability. Several countries have airspace warnings in place, advising to operate FL250/260 or higher, and avoiding GATB, GAGO, and GAKL airports, due to ongoing fighting and militant activity. The US advise caution in Mali's airspace at all levels - due to an expanding foreign private military presence, and the introduction of an advanced air defense system.

The primary risk is from indirect mortar and rocket fire, including MANPADS, which could target aircraft at low altitudes and at airports. The FAA say that militants in Mali primarily target UN and Malian forces which are often based near to Malian airports, and these attacks present an indirect threat to civil aviation.

Major events:
Aug 2020 All airports across the country were closed from Aug 19-20 following a military coup which overthrew the government. Bamako ACC remained operational throughout, with overflights unaffected.
April 2018: Militants attacked UN peacekeepers at two bases near GATB/Timbuktu Airport using both indirect fire weapons and vehicle-borne improvised explosive devices.
Jan 2017 and Nov 2016: Militants conducted vehicle-borne improvised explosive attacks against GAGO/Gao Airport, and rocket attacks against GATB/Timbuktu Airport.

Senegal and Niger control the airspace over Mali, and they have long-standing Notams (published under the GOOO/Dakar and DRRR/Niamey FIRs) warning that you can only fly between FL320-400 through the entire airspace in Mali north of the GABS/Bamako TMA due to military ops across the region.

Somalia Level Two - Danger exists

The situation on the ground is highly unstable and there is an inherent risk to civilians and aircraft. The central government has little control of the major cities and ports, with ongoing attacks from extremist militants targeting civilians who continue to show an intent to target aviation interests.

The primary risk is to overflying aircraft at the lower flight levels, which may be targeted by anti-aircraft-capable weapons. The US prohibits flights across Somalia’s airspace below FL260 (except for flights transiting the overwater portion of the airspace going to/from HDAM/Djibouti airport across the border in Ethiopia). Several other countries have issued airspace warnings advising against operating below FL260 (Note UR401 SIHIL-AXINA is excluded from this by one authority).

The secondary risk over the past few years has been the lack of ATC service for overflights of the HCSM/Mogadishu FIR - it has been Class G uncontrolled airspace. However, from 11 May 2022 there’s a new trial implementing Class A airspace here above FL245 each day from 0300-1800z. More info here.

Major events:
Oct 2022: The Somalian government have issued a warning that HCMM/Mogadishu airport may be targeted by militant groups amid the escalating conflict in the country.
2020-ongoing: Multiple instances of Al-Shabaab attacks on HCMM/Mogadishu and nearby targets, including a UN compound.
May 2020: An Embraer EMB-120 was shot down while on approach to Bardale airstrip, killing all six people on board - an accidental shoot-down by Ethiopian forces stationed in the region to combat Al-Shabaab.

Read: OPSGROUP article: Al-Shabab: A Threat Beyond Somalia, Jul 2021

Ethiopia Level Two - Danger exists

Improving airspace risk picture in Ethiopia’s northern Tigray region since a peace deal was agreed to end the conflict in early Nov 2022. Airspace warnings remain in place for now though - several states say to avoid the area.

The primary risk to aviation is from any large-scale ceasefire violations involving missiles or anti-aircraft weaponry, which may present a risk to overflights in the region - civil aircraft being mistaken for something of military interest, or simply caught in the crossfire.

Major Events:
Nov 2022: Peace deal agreed between the Ethiopian government and TPLF rebel forces in the Tigray region in the north of the country. Ethiopian Airlines is reportedly planning to resume flights to HAMK/Mekele airport soon.
Nov 2021: Several western countries issued airspace warnings, as well as “do not travel” travel warnings for the Tigray region following increased fighting there.
July 2021: HAAA/Addis FIR published a Notam closing a section of airspace below FL290 over the Tigray region along the Ethiopia/Eritrea border. This followed reports that militia shot down a military transport plane in the region the previous week, near the capital Mekele.
Nov 2020: Major escalation of the conflict in the Tigray region, along the Ethiopia/Eritrea border. Some airways were closed by the Ethiopian and Sudanese CAAs. Other airways that were still open were very close to the conflict zone. These are frequently used by international operators on the Europe-East Africa route. In particular: UN321, UG300 and UL432. Multiple airports were targeted by rockets. Missiles were fired across the border into Eritrea, targeting HHAS/Asmara. Within Ethiopia, HABD/Bahir Dar and HAGN/Gondar were also targeted.
Sep 2018: Risk due to hidden ATC strike. Ethiopian ATC controllers went on strike, and the ECAA and Ethiopian Airlines recruited both retired and foreign controllers to pick up the slack. Ethiopia denied several times that there was in fact a strike happening at all. The strike ended Sep 7. Many were not qualified to operate in Ethiopian airspace, due to inexperience.

Saudi Arabia Level Two - Danger exists

There have been no reported drone strikes from Yemen since a ceasefire was agreed in April 2022. However, the ceasefire has not been extended as of Oct 2022 despite intervention from the UN, and there are concerns that the conflict may start up again soon.

If the conflict resumes, Houthi drone and missile attacks on targets in Saudi Arabia pose a potential threat to ops at Saudi airports, and for overflights of the OEJD/Jeddah FIR. Be aware of ESCAT procedures if entering the OEJD/Jeddah FIR – you can find those here.

Several countries have airspace warnings in place. The most significant risk is in the south of the country along the border with Yemen, but OERK/Riyadh and OEJN/Jeddah airports have also been targeted in the past.

The primary risk is from Houthi drone and missile attacks on airports across the country, but particularly in the south.

Major events:
Oct 2022: The UN is pushing for an extension of the ceasefire agreed in April. There was an attempted Houthi drone attack on an oil terminal in southern Yemen on Oct 21, but so far no signs of any further military escalation.
Apr 2022: All parties in the Yemeni conflict agree a ceasefire.
2020-2022: Frequent Houthi drone and rocket attacks targeting OEAH/Abha and OEGN/Jizan airports along the Yemeni-Saudi Border.
Sep 2020: Multiple Saudi airstrikes on rebels in Sanaa, several near the airport.
Oct 2020: Riyadh briefly on high alert for Houthi cruise missile and drone attack.

Read: Saudi-Yemen Airspace Update, Oct 2020 (OPSGROUP article)

Moldova Level Two - Danger exists

Egypt Level Two - Danger exists

There remains a threat from terrorism in Egypt, particularly in the Sinai Peninsular. Only the UK and Germany still have active airspace warnings here - both countries essentially advise against overflights below FL260 in the northern part of the Sinai region. The US had a similar warning in place until it was rescinded in March 2022.

Major events:
July 2019: British Airways suspends Cairo operations for one week due to security concerns.
Feb 2017: An SA-7 anti-aircraft missile tube was found less than a mile from HECA/Cairo airport.
Oct 2015: A Russian A321 was brought down over the Sinai peninsula by a bomb loaded at HESH/Sharm El Sheikh. The group claimed the IED was placed aboard the aircraft prior to departing HESH, raising concerns of potential insider threats at the airport.

Russia Level Two - Danger exists

Belarus Level Two - Danger exists

There is an ongoing active conflict in Ukraine between Russian and Ukrainian forces. Ukraine closed its entire airspace to all civil traffic on Feb 24. Russia and Belarus have closed large sections of their own airspace near to their FIR boundaries with Ukraine.

The US has issued an outright ban barring its operators from the entire airspace of Belarus, and several other countries have issued warnings for the section of airspace in Belarus along its FIR boundary with Ukraine. Several other countries have also issued warnings for this airspace - we have not listed them all here due to sheer volume.

The primary risk is an unintended targeting of civil aircraft by military near the Belarus-Ukraine border, including misidentification (as with MAS17, UIA752), or confusion.

Read: OPSGROUP article: Ukraine and Russia Update March 2022

Prior to Feb 2022, several countries and aviation organisations had urged airlines and operators to avoid the airspace of Belarus, following the country’s interception of an international flight bound for Lithuania and forced to land in Minsk on May 23, 2021. The forced landing of this flight was politically motivated, and the crew were misled into believing that there was a credible security threat against the aircraft.

Kenya Level Two - Danger exists

Kenya is affected by the ongoing Somali Civil War - the main threat comes from militants in response to Kenya’s military intervention in Somalia. The US has a warning in place to exercise caution below FL260 in Kenya’s airspace east of 40 degrees East longitude (the border region with Somalia).

The primary risk is from indirect mortar and rocket fire, including MANPADS, which could target aircraft at low altitudes and at airports.

Major events:
Jan 2020: Two US military/govt aircraft (C-146A, DHC-8), and two helicopters, were destroyed in a militant attack on HKLU/Manda Airport, a US/Kenya joint military base in Lamu county, east coast. Security concerns in this part of Kenya have been ongoing for several years.

Jan 2019: Al-Shabaab militants launched an attack on a hotel complex in central Nairobi on 15 Jan 2019, killing at least 14 people. There were a number of attacks by Al-Shabab in Kenya in preceding years, but none in Nairobi since the attack on the Westgate shopping mall in 2013.

South Sudan Level Two - Danger exists

Following five years of civil war, a ceasefire has largely held since Sept 2018. Significant reduction in violence, but the political and security situation remains volatile. In the event of a serious deterioration, similar to those of July 2016 and Dec 2013, HSSJ/Juba airport may be closed at short notice. The UK, France and Germany still advise against overflying South Sudan below FL250/260 due to the risk posed by anti-aircraft weaponry. The US published a similar warning but rescinded it in Aug 2019.

The primary risk now comes from poor levels of ATC provision for overflights below FL245 or for aircraft operating to HSSJ/Juba airport. In Jan 2021, ICAO published a letter warning of service disruptions and lack of qualified ATC personnel, the lack of contingencies in place, communication issues, the number of withdrawn navigation aids and above all, the lack of information being supplied to operators regarding these issues.

Major events:
April 2019: Military coup in Sudan led to the temporary closure of South Sudan’s airspace.
June 2016: The South Sudanese army declared intention to shoot down aircraft without permits and/or not following proper procedures.

Eritrea Level Two - Danger exists

HHAS/Asmara airport was targeted on 14 Nov 2020 by missiles from the Tigray TPLF, bringing Eritrea into the conflict and meaning that operations here should be avoided. See Ethiopia summary for more detail.

Pakistan Level Two - Danger exists

Couple of issues: Conflict with India in the Kashmir region in the northeastern corner of Pakistan, and concentration of terrorist group representation in the country. Military activity by Pakistan and India in the disputed Kashmir region poses a potential inadvertent risk to aviation at all altitudes, particularly in the OPLR/Lahore FIR. The consensus among foreign authorities is to cross the OPLR/Lahore and OPKR/Karachi FIRs at higher flight levels. Diversion/Landing in Pakistan is recommended against. Avoid operating to OPPS/Peshawar and OPQT/Quetta airports - both are near the border with Afghanistan. OPKC/Karachi Airport was attacked in 2014.

Indonesia Level Three - Caution

The security situation in Papua remains poor. While there are no active airspace warnings for Indonesian Papua or neighbouring Papua New Guinea, the region has a recent history of armed groups targeting either low flying aircraft or airports themselves. Operators should take extra security precautions, including limiting time spent on the ground.

Major events:
Mar 2023: An armed group opened fired at WAYB/Bilorai airport. One plane on the ground was hit and another diverted.
Feb 2023: An aircraft was set on fire and the pilot taken hostage at Paro airfield.
Jan 2023: An armed group fired at an aircraft landing at WAJO/Oksibil airport. It went around and diverted.
June 2022: An armed group fired at an aircraft landing at Kenyam airfield.
Apr 2021: An armed group attacked WABL/Ilaga airport and torched a private helicopter.

Congo DRC Level Three - Caution

Incident on Jan 24, 2023, where a Congo DRC fighter jet came under fire from the Rwandan military in border airspace near FZNA/Goma. There are no active airspace warnings for either the FZZA/Kinshasa or HYRY/Kigali FIRs, but this happened near open airways, and in close proximity to an international airport. While the risk to aircraft at high altitudes is minimal, aircraft landing or departing (including diversions) near the shared border may be exposed to increased risk at lower levels.

Major events:
Jan 2023: The Rwandan military shot at a fighter jet from the Democratic Republic of Congo which they claimed had busted Rwandan airspace near Goma. Reports suggest the aircraft was hit by a man portable air defence system (MANPAD) at low level - the jet landed safely but sustained heavy damage. This has been declared an 'act of war' by the DRC, and is the latest escalation in a growing conflict.

Read: Africa Airspace Risk, Jet Shot in Rwanda, Jan 2023 (OPSGROUP article)

Rwanda Level Three - Caution

Read: Africa Airspace Risk, Jet Shot in Rwanda, Jan 2023 (OPSGROUP article)

Myanmar Level Three - Caution

Only one international airspace warning exists, that of Germany, cautioning against flights below FL160 due to a potential risk from military ops, surface-to-air fire and anti-aviation weaponry.

The security situation in Myanmar has deteriorated since the military coup in Feb 2021. There is significant conflict and violence across many parts of the country, involving air strikes and armed clashes. In urban areas, there have been shootings and targeted explosions, although normal city life has resumed in large parts of Yangon.

Major events:
Sep 2022: A Myanmar National Airlines passenger was reportedly shot as bullets passed through the fuselage of the ATR 72 aircraft on approach to VYLK/Loikaw.
Feb 2021: Military coup ousted the government. ATC strike at the end of Feb resulted in no ATC service provided to overflights (read more on that here). Since then, there have been increasing strikes and mass protests by opposition activists, as well as clashes with militia and airstrikes on areas where militia are known to be active.

Read: OPSGROUP Article - Myanmar, Nov 2022

Central African Republic Level Three - Caution

The security situation on the ground in the Central African Republic is dire. There have been numerous attacks on civilians and peacekeeping troops in recent years. FEFF/Bangui airport is operating under UN control, and is subject to regular power outages. The US and UK advise against all travel to the entire country due to violent crime, civil unrest, and the presence of armed groups who control large areas of the country. There are no official airspace warnings in place for the CAR, but the general advice is to avoid landings here completely.

Major events:
Nov 2022: An unidentified aircraft dropped bombs targeting a militant group 150nm north of the capital Bangui. The group responded with small arms fire. Low flying aircraft in the area may be at increased risk.
Feb 2021: Deteriorating security situation. A state of emergency was declared due to post election violence. The government suspended use of all airspace by foreign governments and NGOs. For the second time, armed rebels attempted to enter the capital Bangui to overthrow the newly elected president. They got within six miles of the city before being pushed back by local and UN forces.

Turkey Level Three - Caution

The primary risk is misidentification by local militia who infrequently target Turkish military aircraft with MANPADS and weaponsied drones. Operations to LTAJ/Gaziantep should be carefully reviewed given its proximity to the Syrian border. Along the border with Syria and Iraq in proximity to conflict zones, there is a higher level of airborne military traffic, UAS and the risk of proximity to airstrikes.

The secondary risk is from GPS jamming. There are frequent reports from crews of GPS signal interference in Turkish airspace - with some as far away as abeam Baghdad. GPS jamming is common through the LTAA/Ankara FIR, and especially on the border between the ORBB/Baghdad and OIIX/Tehran FIRs.

Major events:
Nov 2022: Shelling and a rocket strike near a town in southern Turkey, near the border with Syria. Turkey has been carrying out airstrikes on Syria and Kurdish regions of Iraq.
May 2021: Attempted drone attack by local militia on LTCC/Diyabakir airport in South Eastern Turkey.
Jan 2019: Turkish security forces intercepted three weaponised drones during attempted attacks against sites in southern Turkey.

United Arab Emirates Level Three - Caution

Improving airspace risk picture in the UAE, where there have been no reported drone or missile strikes from Yemen since a ceasefire was agreed in April 2022. However, the ceasefire has not been extended as of Oct 2022 despite intervention from the UN, and there are concerns that the conflict may start up again soon.

If the conflict resumes, Houthi drone and missile attacks on targets in the UAE pose a potential threat to ops at airports, and for overflights of the OMAE/Emirates FIR. OMAA/Abu Dhabi Airport has been targeted on several occasions in the past. There are not currently any official airspace warnings for the OMAE/Emirates FIR by any countries, but we are listing this info here for reference.

The primary risk is from incidental damage from Houthi drone and missile attacks on airports. Also note that short notice airspace disruptions are likely, along with air defence activity near major cities.

Major events:
Feb 2022: At least three drones were shot down by surface-to-air missiles in UAE airspace on Feb 2. This time militants in Iraq have claimed responsibility for the attack.
Jan 2022: Houthi ballistic missile targeting Abu Dhabi was destroyed on Jan 30 - the third attack in two weeks. Flights at OMAA/Abu Dhabi were briefly affected.

Read: OPSGROUP article: Has The Yemen Conflict Reached The UAE? Jan 2022

Japan Level Three - Caution

The primary risk is from debris from missile re-entries striking aircraft overflying the oceanic part of the ZKKP/Pyongyang FIR over the Sea of Japan. North Korea regularly conducts unannounced missile tests in this area. Consider rerouting to remain over the Japanese landmass or east of it.

The US prohibits flights across all North Korean airspace, including the oceanic part of the ZKKP/Pyongyang FIR over the Sea of Japan. Several other countries have airspace warnings in place which advise caution due to the risk posed by unannounced rocket launches.

Major events:
Oct 2022: North Korea fired a ballistic missile directly over Japan - the first to incur on Japanese airspace since 2017.
2017: North Korea launched two intercontinental ballistic missiles. Both of these landed in the Sea of Japan, well inside the Fukuoka Flight Information Region (Japanese airspace), and significantly, at least one did not re-enter the atmosphere intact – meaning that a debris field of missile fragments passed through the airspace, not just one complete missile.
2015: North Korea gradually stopped notifying ICAO of missile launches, so that aircraft could avoid the launch and splashdown areas.

Read: North Korea Missile Threat, Oct 2022 (OPSGROUP article)

Azerbaijan Level Three - Caution

On Sep 12, 2022, there were renewed border clashes between Azerbaijan and Armenia - the worst flare-up in hostilities since the war ended in 2020. The waypoints along the border between the two countries (VETEN, PEMAN, ELSIV, MATAL) were temporarily closed on Sep 13, but reopened the next day, after Russia said it brokered a ceasefire to end the fighting. Some flights between Europe and Asia are still overflying the border region again, whilst others are continuing to detour through Georgian airspace to the north (the UGGG/Tbilisi FIR), avoiding Azerbaijan.

Several foreign airspace warnings for Armenia or Azerbaijan were withdrawn at the end of the war in 2020. Following recent events in Sep 2022, only Canada has issued a new airspace warning (for both countries) advising caution due to potential risk from anti-aviation weaponry and military ops.

The primary risk is from any further large-scale ceasefire violations involving missiles or anti-aircraft weaponry, which may present a risk to overflights in the border region.

Major events:
Sep 2022: Clashes between Azerbaijan and Armenia temporarily closed all border waypoints.
Sep/Oct 2020: Conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan led to large sections of closed airspace along the northern border. Azerbaijan warned of threat posed by long-range missiles which they claimed Armenia had been using to target locations throughout Azerbaijan. Germany and France issued airspace warnings of a potential risk to aviation from military operations including anti aviation weaponry.

Armenia Level Three - Caution

On Sep 12, 2022, there were renewed border clashes between Azerbaijan and Armenia - the worst flare-up in hostilities since the war ended in 2020. The waypoints along the border between the two countries (VETEN, PEMAN, ELSIV, MATAL) were temporarily closed on Sep 13, but reopened the next day, after Russia said it brokered a ceasefire to end the fighting. Some flights between Europe and Asia are still overflying the border region again, whilst others are continuing to detour through Georgian airspace to the north (the UGGG/Tbilisi FIR), avoiding Armenia.

Several foreign airspace warnings for Armenia or Azerbaijan were withdrawn at the end of the war in 2020. Following recent events in Sep 2022, only Canada has issued a new airspace warning (for both countries) advising caution due to potential risk from anti-aviation weaponry and military ops.

The primary risk is from any further large-scale ceasefire violations involving missiles or anti-aircraft weaponry, which may present a risk to overflights in the border region.

Major events:
Sep 2022: Clashes between Azerbaijan and Armenia temporarily closed all border waypoints.
Sep/Oct 2020: Conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan led to large sections of closed airspace along the northern border. Azerbaijan warned of threat posed by long-range missiles which they claimed Armenia had been using to target locations throughout Azerbaijan. Germany and France issued airspace warnings of a potential risk to aviation from military operations including anti aviation weaponry.

Western Sahara Level Three - Caution

A new conflict zone is emerging in Western Sahara. The country is split down the middle - Morocco controls the west, and the region’s independence movement, the Polisario, controls the east. The Polisario have declared war on Morocco.

The primary risk is from anti-aircraft fire from the conflict. The FAA has published a note warning that the Polisario likely have access to anti-aircraft weaponry which may pose an inadvertent risk to civil aircraft up to FL120. The GCCC/Canarias FIR issued a Notam warning operators to avoid using the airways over Western Sahara below FL200 (this Notam was withdrawn in Nov 2021).

The secondary risk is from lack of continuous ATC coverage. Western Sahara does not control its own airspace - it falls within both the GCCC/Canarias and the GOOO/Dakar FIRs, which may complicate airspace management should the conflict escalate. The FAA advise aircraft operating in the region to stay in touch with ATC and be prepared for possible airspace restrictions and reroutes.

Read: Opsgroup article - Western Sahara Airspace Update, May 2021.

Sudan Level Three - Caution

Ops resumed at HSSK/Khartoum Airport on Oct 27 following a military coup in Sudan on Oct 25. The main risk to aviation is the security situation on the ground. Civil unrest is widespread and there have been fatal clashes with police. There's no increased risk for overflights in the HSSS/Khartoum FIR, but keep in mind the lack of security if you need to divert - things are volatile.

Only one international airspace warning exists, that of France, recommending overflight above FL260 in the far southern and western edges of the country (west of the 27°E and south of 13°N) near to the borders with South Sudan, Central African Republic, and Chad.

The primary risk here now relates to its proximity to South Sudan - which has poor levels of ATC provision for overflights below FL245.

Major events:
Oct 2021: Military coup on Oct 25. HSSK/Khartoum closed for two days, with all flights suspended.
Jan 2020: HSSK/Khartoum airport was closed for five hours late on 14 Jan following gunfire on the streets of the capital, including in areas close to the airport. The clashes were between the army and former security agents who revolted over severance pay. The airport reopened the next day, with the government saying the violence was over and the situation was under control.
Apr 2019: Sudan temporarily closed its airspace all day on 11 April following a military coup which ousted the country’s longtime President Omar al-Bashir from power. This came after months of on-and-off protests against his rule.

Read: OPSGROUP article: Sudan Airspace Update, Jan 2021

Israel Level Three - Caution

Rocket attacks on Israel and Israeli air strikes on targets in Gaza and Syria could present a risk to civil aircraft operating in the region.

The primary risks are: misidentification or miscalculation by air defence systems, falling debris from air defence activities, ballistic impact while on the ground, and short notice airspace closures.

Major Events:
Aug 2021: Following an Israeli airstrike on Syria, Syria sent a surface to air missile towards Tel Aviv. The missile detonated off the coast of Israel and there was no damage.
May 2021: Rocket attacks on Israel and Israeli air strikes on Gaza. LLBG/Tel Aviv Airport was forced to close on several occasions, as air defence systems were activated around the country to repel incoming rocket attacks. Ceasefire agreed on May 21.
July 2014: Major rocket fire from Gaza against Tel Aviv during the Gaza War. The US FAA responded by imposing restrictions at LLBG/Tel Aviv airport for a two day period, and EASA advised that operators suspend flights, which ultimately resulted in 30 airlines cancelling flights.

Read: Opsgroup article - Israel: Assessing the Airspace Risk, May 2021

Albania Level Three - Caution

Pilots should exercise extreme caution while operating in Albanian airspace (the LAAA/Tirana FIR) due to a heightened risk of degraded ATC services.

In April 2021, Albanian airspace (the LAAA/Tirana FIR) along with LATI/Tirana Airport was forced to close, after a number of local air traffic controllers declared themselves temporarily unfit to work.

Local air traffic controllers are working under significant duress and high stress, having been threatened with dismissal (or worse - being arrested and jailed) if they do not declare themselves fit for duty. A number of foreign controllers were temporarily brought in despite not being trained or rated on any of the local positions.

Several international associations have published warnings, including IFALPA and IFATCA.

Venezuela Level Three - Caution

Ongoing political and social crisis in Venezuela. On 1 May 2019, the US FAA issued a new Do Not Fly instruction to US operators, barring all operations into or over Venezuela, unless operating at or above FL260, and giving a window of 48 hours to leave the country.

Chad Level Three - Caution

N'Djamena in the past was a popular fuel stop in central Africa, but multiple travel warnings now advise against travel here. No official state Notams have been issued, but danger remains high. A state of emergency remains in place for the Lake Chad region. High threat for terrorism. Avoid landings.

Cyprus Level Three - Caution

Two issues the LCCC/Nicosia FIR over Cyprus: proximity to active conflict zone in Syria, and GPS Interference.

The primary risk is from the proximity to Syria: civil aircraft may be targeted in error, or caught in crossfire during ongoing air attacks involving Israel, Russia, Iran. Missiles may erroneously lock on to civil aircraft. There is a risk to civil aircraft operating on airways UL620, UW74, UR18, and UP62. In simple terms, if you find yourself planned overwater east of Cyprus, reconsider your route.

The secondary risk is from GPS Interference. This has been ongoing since 2018. In April 2018, the Nicosia FIR began being used as a military staging for possible strikes in Syria, prompting EASA to issue a warning, and lead to avoidance of the FIR by many airlines.

Major events:
Sep 2018: Russian IL-20 shot down in error on FIR boundary with Cyprus (Nicosia FIR) - airline flights on UL620 within 50nm of this position.

Philippines Level Three - Caution

There has been a high volume of crew reports of GPS Interference in the Philippines, leading to GPS/ADS-B dropouts, especially in the vicinity of RPLL/Manila.

Lebanon Level Three - Caution

The primary risk in Lebanon’s airspace (the OLBB/Beirut FIR) relates to its proximity to Syria: civil aircraft may be targeted in error, or caught in crossfire during ongoing air attacks involving Israel, Russia, Iran. Missiles may erroneously lock on to civil aircraft. There is a risk to civil aircraft operating on airways UL620, UW74, UR18, and UP62. In simple terms, if you find yourself planned overwater east of Cyprus, reconsider your route.

Several countries have issued airspace warnings for Syria, banning operators from entering the OSTT/Damascus FIR. Many of these warnings include include the note that there is a potential risk to aircraft within 200nm of the Damascus FIR (i.e. the LLLL/Tel Aviv, OJAC/Amman, OLBB/Beirut and LCCC/Nicosia FIRs) due to military activity - possibility of GPS interference, communication jamming, and long-range surface to air missiles in the area.

Major events:
Feb 2020: An A320 enroute OSDI/Damascus caught in crossfire during attack by 4 Israeli F-16’s, forced to divert to Russian controlled air base.
Sep 2018: Russian IL-20 shot down in error on FIR boundary with Cyprus (Nicosia FIR) - airline flights on UL620 within 50nm of this position.

Read: OpsGroup Note -Syria, Sep 2018 (PDF)